Discuss the nature of dyslexia and implication for identification and Essay

Discuss the nature of dyslexia and implication for identification and assesment - Essay Example It is to be remembered that this is just only one aspect of the working definition, and this disorder is elusive in the sense that there are many differing opinions about the definition of this disorder in the literature, as a result many other different definitions exist. What all workers in this area accept comes from The Department of Education and Skills in their Framework for Understanding Dyslexia inform on theories and approaches to dyslexia. In it they have presented a practical approach to define dyslexia. Although literally, this word means difficulty with words or language, this literal meaning does not totally apply to the disorder of dyslexia at all. It is true that there are many reasons for difficulty to learn, read, or write. For these individuals, these difficulties "do not seem so easily explainable (DfES, 2004, 5). It has thus been defined by them as "a specific difficulty, typically characterised by an unusual balance of skills. Dyslexia affects information proces sing" (DfES, 2004, 5) in all the forms, receiving, holding, retrieving and structuring the information and this speed of information processing becomes very sluggish (DfES, 2004, 5). Skills such as reading, writing, using symbols, and carrying out calculations are all dependent on information processing system of the human brain. ... So, it would be worthwhile to examine the definition that is practically utilized while administering special education to these people. The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice refers to specific learning difficulties in a section considering 'cognition and learning'. The Code states: 'Children who demonstrate features of . . . specific learning difficulties, such as dyslexia . . . require specific programmes to aid progress in cognition and learning. . . . Some of these children may have associated sensory, physical and behavioural difficulties that compound their needs' (DfES, 2001a, 7: 58). In this context it is of utmost importance to remember that it is not related to intelligence and may occur in different forms, mild, moderate, and severe. Consequently, their individual profiles vary from each other, with each having their unique strengths and weaknesses, and therefore uniqueness. In this assignment, the nature of dyslexia will be discussed in a greater detail in the fo llowing paragraphs so these attributes can be used for identification and assessment of this disorder. Nature With continuing research into the area, there has been considerable progress in identifying the causes of dyslexia so effective intervention could be designed to break into the cycle of failure (Fawcett, 2001, 25). This progress has been enormous since the usually grim outlook in such individuals is no longer hopeless. It has been noted that ""the stage is set for undertaking ambitious, multi-disciplinary, multi-perspective projects aimed at redefining the field of dyslexia and learning difficulties as the field of learning abilities"

Scholarly Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Scholarly - Research Paper Example I have held constantly that nursing is an encounter of care my experiences in home care have further deconstructed my notion of nursing as encounter of care. In this paper, I will touch upon my experiences when I, together with my preceptor, visited two home care clients of Alberta Health Services. In this regard, I will present two scenarios wherein I will expound on the nursing competencies as espoused in CARNA by sharing the health visits we had with the clients. Then, I will also show how the theory of evidence-based knowledge and theory of quality care nursing with phenomenology augments the minimal discourse on instruments to measure quality of home care (Robinson et al., 1999). Finally, I will conclude the paper with my reflection and its summary. Alberta health Services (AHS) is the largest health care provider in Canada. AHS diverse health care services, employing highly qualified health care providers. Also, AHS view health care services as no one size fits all. Instead, they acknowledge the significance of divergence as it affects the needs and health concerns of their patients. AHS turned diversity into an enabling ethos, thus, it has established the care arena that is responsive, holistic and client-centered. However, in the midst of the condition of diversity, AHS holds a stable pillar - CARNA competencies. AHS strongly advocates knowledge-based and ethical nursing care practice in all the services they offer. As such, undertaking my home care services with AHS afforded me a chance to take a re-look in what I now know as a nurse and how I can further strengthen it while improving on aspects of the nursing practice where I may falter – a readiness for change. The client is suffering from enlargement of the prostate. He lives at home with his wife. The patient has a Foley catheter inserted. Concurrently, the client is also suffering from other

History Of Persuasion Rhetoric English Language Essay

History Of Persuasion Rhetoric English Language Essay Rhetoric, the study of how human beings use symbols to communicate( Foss, Foss, Trapp, 2002), is one of the oldest concepts of human communication in the Western World which dates back to the fifth century B.C( Baldwin, Perry, Moffitt,2004). This field of study marked the advent of speech communication. A pivotal concept studied in the field of rhetoric is Persuasion. Such is the prominence of this particular phenomenon in this discipline that, in present times, the study of rhetoric is generally considered synchronous to the study of persuasive communication.( Baldwin et al, 2004). Persuasion stems from the three cultures which make up the classical rhetorical theory. It all started with the sophists, a body of Greek teachers, who wrote handbooks which defined methods of producing and delivering persuasive messages. The act of sophists charging money for their services and their strong criticism by Plato perpetuated an antisophistic sentiment which lead to their subsequent demise. By this time ( 428 -348 B.C) Plato had come to the forefront and professed the necessity of finding the absolute truth( Baldwin et al, 2004). Platos student Aristotle constructed a philosophy which drew from the ideologies advocated by the sophists as well as Plato, providing a sort of middle ground between completely relative to absolute unvarying truth.( Baldwin et al, 2004, pg 78). In his masterpiece The Rhetoric, Aristotle speaks of the three essential elements of an effective persuasive speech: ethos, pathos and logos. Ethos is the moral character of the speaker, pathos is taking into consideration the feelings of the audience members and logos is the accuracy of logic and argument in the speech.( OHair , Wiemann,2009). The current literature review primarily focuses on the role of pathos in persuasive messages. But before progressing in that direction, the most fundamental question which needs to be addressed is : What is persuasion? Persuasion and Interpersonal Influence Persuasion, at its very core, is an attempt to influence without direct coercion ( Dillard, Pfau, 2002). Daniel OKeefe in his book Persuasion: Theory and Research smartly pointed out that success is considered to be ingrained in the concept of persuasion. To make a claim that I was persuaded means that the attempt of influence was indeed successful. This influence attempt can either be to bring in a complete change in attitude and beliefs which is inclusive of emotions and behavior of another person or to just preserve this attitudinal change. (Dillard et al 2002). The early research work conducted on persuasion has primarily been with respect to a large audience setup ( Miller 1987). However, with the realization that almost 80 % of the influence attempts occur in close relationships( Dillard,Knobloch, 2002) the focus on research work has steered towards interpersonal influence which, as the name suggests, focuses on the persuasive message production and effects( dillard , knobloch , 2002) in interpersonal relationships. One of the main differences which crops up between the study of rhetoric and the study of persuasion theories is the fact that research on rhetoric is primarily humanistic while persuasion takes a more social scientific bend trying to explicate the variables which enhance or inhibit the probability of success of a persuasive message (Baldwin et al 2002). Affect, Emotion, Mood and Feelings : Same or different? Some researchers use the terms affect emotion and mood interchangeably, but these terms need to be delineated for a better understanding of each of their roles in persuasive communication( Guerrero, Anderson , Trost, 1998). Affect refers to the experience of feeling or emotion. Emotions are considered to be internal and have a primary focus on affect. Moods are longer lasting feelings (which are not as concrete and specific as emotions ( Clore, Shwartz,Conway, 1994 ; Frijda,1986 in Jorgenson,1998). A more detailed description of the terms are accounted for below. Affect Definition: Origin: There have been two contesting views on the source of affect. Studies conducted by Dillard and Wilson(1993) explicated the message irrelevant affect where the affect itself bears no logical relationship to the content of the message , it has nothing to do with the message whatsoever ( Dillard, Pfau,2002). This type of affect takes into account the emotional state existing prior to the reception of a persuasive message which has a significant impact on the message processing by an individual(Anderson, Guerrero,1998). The other view on the source of affect, the message induced affect (Dillard, Wilson, 1993) is one where affect is considered a part and parcel of the message evaluation, when messages are designed in a way to evoke certain emotions and feelings which serve as the basis of acceptance of the advocacy(Dillard, Pfau,2002). Dillard and Wilson(1993) refer to it as direct effect as the emotion occurs in direct response to a given message(Jorgenson,1998, pg.406). Structure of Affect Dillard and Meijenders(2002) accounted for three models of affect on which I am going to focus on as well. The first model is the Bipolar Valence Model. According to this model, affect should be structured as a single continuum with positive affect on one end of the spectrum and negative affect on the other. This model suggests how the pre-existing affective states have a considerable effect on how the receiver processes the message. The mood as information hypothesis in this regard states that positive mood or affective state of a receiver encourages heuristic message processing while negative moods elicit cognitive processing. Mood management hypothesis( Wegener and Petty,1996) was formulated as a challenge to the mood as information hypothesis which states that information processing depends on the affective state of the receiver in a different way. If the receiver feels that elaborative processing of a positive message can enhance his mood, he will indulge in it. The second model is the Two Dimensional Model. Dillard and Meijnders(2002) account for two types of two dimensional models. One model has pleasure as one dimension and arousal as the second one. The conceptual allure of this circumplex is its ability to explain affective experience as blends of pleasure and arousal (Reisenzein, 1994 in Dillard, Meijnders 2002). Empirical evidence shows that increased arousal inhibits systematic processing of messages. The second model in this category has two systems as the two dimensions. One of them, the behavioral approach system, facilitates goal directed behavior. The other one, behavioral inhibition system discourages behavior which may lead to undesired negative results.(Davidson,1993 ;Gray,1990 in Dillard, Meijnders, 2002, pg 316). The third and final model named the Discrete Emotion Model distinguished emotions from one another on the grounds that they are characterized by varied systemic changes( Dillard and Meijenders,2002). The main function of this model is to elicit the fact that each emotion has distinct effects on a variety of persuasive outcomes.( Dillard and Meijenders, 2002). Information Processing Models After the persuasive message has been disseminated, the audience member processes the information in different ways depending on factors such as the message features and audience members emotional and affective state. Different models of information processing are formulated based on these caharacteristics. Message Relevant Models : Elaboration Likelihood Model as well as Heuristic Systematic Processing ( as a dual process model as) postulate two distinct modes of message analysis. The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion is an approach developed by Richard Petty,John Caciaoppo and their associates(1986a,1986b) which postulates that there can be two different routes to persuasion depending on the extent to which the argument is elaborated, by the central route or by the peripheral route( Anderson, Guerrero,1998). The central route is when the receiver of the message weighs the argumentative quality of the message and processes the message using sound logic and reason whereas peripheral route is when the receiver of the message uses cues such as mood(Anderson, Guerrero,1998) to react to the persuasive message. When the receivers motivation is low and he is unable to judge the cognitive aspects of the message, i.e., he performs low elaboration of the message, the receiver is then generally guided by simpler heuristic principles such as credibility, liking, and consensus (O Keefe, 2002). On the other hand, during extensive elaboration, the content of the mes sage takes predominance over the peripheral cues. Jorgensen(2002) argues that emotional appeals are more effective as persuasive tools during low elaboration and even brings about attitude change in the receiver, however such attitude change is more fleeting than those brought about by the central route processing.(authors, pg409). The Heuristic Systematic Processing model is also used to explain the message processing methods used by receivers of persuasive messages. According to this model, there are two ways by which a receiver will judge a message, either by Systematic processing or by Heuristic Processing. Dillard and Peck ( 2000) in their article on evaluation of Public Service announcements succinctly describe both approaches in this model with reference to how the audience perceives the persuasive health campaign messages. They state that systematic processing is contemplative analytic and responsive to the argumentative quality of the message while heuristic processing involves the usage of shortcut decision making rules called heuristics to make a faster decision. Many researchers have stated that affect serves as the basis of the heuristics in heuristic reasoning. Emotion is, perhaps, the psychological heuristic key to human survival( pg 735, persuasion handbook). WHEN ARE THE TWO USED? Appraisal Theory : The appraisal theory explains the simple causal sequence through which emotions arise in the following steps : the message is produced by the speaker, perceived by the hearer and then appraised by the hearer. The receiver makes a judgment call by appraising the message against the dimension of the resultant personal harm or benefit and depending upon the extent of the judgment, an emotion arises( iv). In a nutshell, this theory suggests that a message may engender emotions as a result of the receivers judgment or not evoke any emotions all together. Appraisal Pattern: Message Irrelevant Models Effect of Mood on Persuasion More than models, three hypotheses govern the explanation of how mood has a substantial effect on message processing. We have already discussed how the elaboration of a message affects the message processing by the receiver. Now, we shift our attention to the reasons behind the differing elaboration of the message by the receiver. As suggested by Blumenthal () , the mood regulation hypothesis states that cognitive information processing of a persuasive message is influenced by the receivers mood. If the receiver is in a positive mood , he is motivated to steer away from a deep analysis of the message for it might take him out of that good mood. Similarly , if someone is in a negative mood, he is more likely to evaluate the incoming stimuli more carefully. Thus positive mood involves heuristic cognitive processing of a communication message and negative mood is synchronous with the in depth systematic processing of the message. The motivational hypothesis also has a similar line of belief. It states that the use of peripheral or systematic processing to evaluate a message depends upon the mood of the receiver; if the person is in a certain mood, he might be predisposed to choose a certain method of message processing over another. For example the research conducted by Isen(1991) suggests that people in a good emotional state are more inclined towards low elaboration of a message as they just want to hold on to their positive mood( handbook). On the other hand, people in bad moods tend to be in a threatened mentality where in they want to judge every message carefully to be sure to not make costly judgments about the state of the world( Jorgensen). The motivational hypothesis also sheds light on the way the argumentative quality of the message is perceived in different emotional states. Recipients of strong arguments should be more persuaded when they are in a bad mood and conversely, recipients of weak argu ments should be more persuaded when they are in a good mood. This shows that the mood plays an instrumental role in deciding the acceptance of the message as well as its argumentative quality. The cognitive capacity hypothesis can be considered as an extension of the motivational hypothesis as together with asserting that affective states do influence the information processing capacity of the receiver it also states that these affective states may also interfere with the information processing. However it fails to state which affective state acts as the hindrance because under different circumstances different affective states can become the hindrance. This claim is elucidated by Dillard and Nabi(2006) when they posited that different emotional states can enhance or inhibit persuasive success and that under different circumstances the same emotional states may inhibit or enhance persuasive processes. Understanding that emotional appeals play an important and legitimate role in the process of persuasion is an important first step for communication researchers. Emotions: Emotion plays a major role in various forms of persuasive communication, from politics to health communication to advertisements. Aristotle stated that persuasion is accomplished by the interplay of three forms of rhetorical proof( real communication ph 461), ethos which reflects the speakers trustworthiness and moral character; logos which stands for a well reasoned and structured argument and finally pathos which denotes the audiences feelings. Even though everyday attempts of persuasion depend heavily on emotional appeals, emotion is the one variable which has had very little inquiry. There can be many reasons for this discrepancy. One of them could be the over emphasis of logic over emotion, researchers have always treated logic as a superior dimension in the construction of persuasive messages(Jergenson,1998). On the other hand Seibold, Cantrill and Meyers(1985 p559) point out that most of the times emotion is taken for granted. Since emotion is so effortlessly incorporated in most of our day to day persuasive messages that researchers just assume its effectiveness in the persuasive process rather than tes ting its operation( vi). Jorgensen(1998) posits the two competing notions of studying emotions: one of them states that emotion is not an integral part of the persuasion process rather it is a offshoot of the communicative process. In this view, emotions are looked upon as inherent states of the receiver, ones which do not have any direct relation with the persuasive message. The other view suggests that emotions are an integral part of the persuasive messages and emotional appeals are explicitly used to bring in attitude change thus accomplishing the primary goal of the persuasive process. Affect, Emotion, Feeling and Mood Affect refers to the experience of feeling or emotion. Emotions are considered to be internal and have a primary focus on affect. Together with this, emotions are also thought to be specific, focused and foregrounded in consciousness.(v) . The concept of emotion becomes clearer when seen in comparison with mood. Unlike emotion, moods are considered to be longer lasting feelings which may not be about anything specific. Instances like I am happy because I feel good , which do not have any sound and concrete reasons backing up the resulting emotion are considered to be moods. Moods are also not characterized by a specific outcome stimuli and even though mood seems to be something which is fleeting and diffusive, it does have serious effects on message information processing. (Geurrero, Andersen, troust,1998). Before we delve into that part of research, we will look a bit more in details on emotion. There are three ways in which emotions can be conceptualized : the discrete emotions approach, the prototype approach and the dimensional approach. The discrete emotion approach pivots around a central claim, emotions guide behavior(handbook of persuasion pg 318). As the name suggests, this approach considers each emotion to be discrete and also postulates that each emotion supplies a unique information manifesting distinct patterns of cognitive change( handbook). This means that if each emotion has a distinct pattern of behavioral change, then these emotions should also elicit distinct effects of persuasion. In the dimensional approach, emotions are categorized according to different dimensions like valence, activity and intensity. The prototype approach offers a middle ground position between discrete emotional approach and dimensional approach by categorizing emotions by a number of characteristics like valence, functions and expressions( pg 19 , guerrero, Anderson and trost). Emotional Appeal and Emotional Arousal: The meaning of appeal is to request for change. Emotional appeal is hence an appeal through emotions. Considering that emotional appeals are profusely implemented in everyday persuasive attempts, the limited attention and research on emotionality is astounding. There can be many reasons for this neglect. One of them could be the over emphasis of logic over emotion, researchers have always treated logic as a superior dimension in the construction of persuasive messages(Jergenson,1998). On the other hand Seibold, Cantrill and Meyers(1985 p559) point out that most of the times emotion is taken for granted. Since emotion is so effortlessly incorporated in most of our day to day persuasive messages that researchers just assume its effectiveness in the persuasive process rather than testing its operation( vi). Dillard and Wilson(1993) claim until the 1960s, research on emotions was negated by many of the social sciences on the grounds of it not being in accordance with the theory of logica l positivism. Although the recognition of the importance of emotion from a communication perspective( Jorgenson,1998) gained prominence in the 1980s.(Dillard and Wilson 1993). Through research it was realized that the effectiveness of persuasive messages in highly enhanced when the message incorporates both flawless logic as well as the effective arousal of the receivers emotions.(Arnold,1985). Emotional persuasion is this the method by which the message receiver is persuaded through the arousal of emotion or through appeal to expected emotion. Sometimes the message producers include emotional appeals in the messages, intending to arouse a certain sort of emotion in the receiver which would increase the effectiveness of the persuasive message. However, the interpretation of the message by the audience member may have three possibilities; after the receiver appraises the message, the intended emotion will be invoked in him; multiple emotions are invoked in the receiver or no emotions are evoked altogether. Thus the study of emotional appeals has been done by a trial and error method ( Jorgenson, 1998) and also challenges the principle of the CFM model(Nabi,1999) to an extent. The cfm model states that the message producers should firstly decide which emotion they want to evoke to achieve their persuasive goals and then construct the message in a way to reflect the core relational theme or the crux of that emotion. This model points out one of the processes of emotional arousal. Another generic way of arousing emotions is by incorporating a novel stimuli in the message. It has been observed that often times prior knowledge may inhibit emotional arousal(iii). There are certain emotional appeals which evoke negative emotions in the audience member for example fear appeals in specific health campaign messages. In such messages, when the emotional arousal is followed up with effective and feasible ways to overcome the fear, this strategy is very effective in increasing the persuasiveness of the message. For example, when a commercial on AIDS elicits fear in the audience member, the next step should be to also inform the audience member about safe sex, the usage of condoms and other preventive measures which reassures the audience member as well. Walton(1992) states that many a times emotional appeals in messages are either irrelevant, i.e. , it is not pertinent to the message being conveyed or they are used as tools to camouflage the weakness of an argument being presented to inappropriately influence the listener(vi). Thus, even though it is the receivers perception of the emotion induced message which guides his attitude and the subsequent action, the receiver should be careful of the way in which he reaches his conclusion about the persuasive message. Thus from the above observations it can be summarized that the efficacy of a persuasive message from the stand point of a receiver can be measured in three parameters : the credibility of the source , the effective emotional arousal by the message and finally the provision of feasible measures to cater to the emotion( vi). Structure of Affect and Future Research :

Defender of the Faith Theme Essays -- Defender of the Faith

Defender of the Faith Theme Theme in â€Å"Defender of the Faith† can be interpreted in many varying ways, some of which are life-long lessons and others to the relation between faith and the individual. Throughout much of the story, Nathan Marx is lost between his role as a sergeant, Jew and human being. The relationship between the church, state and individual is a well-known concept. The three must be independent of each other and this story explores what happens when the three are forced together. His religion starts the whole process of the three intertwining. As his grandmother said, â€Å"Mercy overrides justice.† The quote reflects Marx’s human side, where feelings dominate over duty. I think the theme warns about faith interfering with government and vice versa, with the single ...

Digital Fortress Chapter 25

Inside the Clinica de Salud Publica, visiting hours were over. The gymnasium lights had been turned out. Pierre Cloucharde was fast asleep. He did not see the figure hunched over him. The needle of a stolen syringe glinted in the dark. Then it disappeared into the IV tube just above Cloucharde's wrist. The hypodermic contained 30 cc of cleaning fluid stolen from a janitor's cart. With great force, a strong thumb rammed the plunger down and forced the bluish liquid into the old man's veins. Cloucharde was awake only for a few seconds. He might have screamed in pain had a strong hand not been clamped across his mouth. He lay trapped on his cot, pinned beneath a seemingly immovable weight. He could feel the pocket of fire searing its way up his arm. There was an excruciating pain traveling through his armpit, his chest, and then, like a million shattering pieces of glass, it hit his brain. Cloucharde saw a brilliant flash of light†¦ and then nothing. The visitor released his grip and peered through the darkness at the name on the medical chart. Then he slipped silently out. On the street, the man in wire-rim glasses reached to a tiny device attached to his belt. The rectangular pack was about the size of a credit card. It was a prototype of the new Monocle computer. Developed by the U.S. Navy to help technicians record battery voltages in cramped quarters on submarines, the miniature computer packed a cellular modem and the newest advances in micro technology. Its visual monitor was a transparent liquid crystal display, mounted in the left lens of a pair of eyeglasses. The Monocle reflected a whole new age in personal computing; the user could now look through his data and still interact with the world around him. The Monocle's real coup, though, was not its miniature display but rather its data entry system. A user entered information via tiny contacts fixed to his fingertips; touching the contacts together in sequence mimicked a shorthand similar to court stenography. The computer would then translate the shorthand into English. The killer pressed a tiny switch, and his glasses flickered to life. His hands inconspicuously at his sides, he began touching different fingertips together in rapid succession. A message appeared before his eyes. SUBJECT: P. CLOUCHARDE-TERMINATED He smiled. Transmitting notification of kills was part of his assignment. But including victim's names†¦ that, to the man in the wire-rim glasses, was elegance. His fingers flashed again, and his cellular modem activated. MESSAGE SENT

Re-Entry and Its Effects: Institutional and Post Release Essay

Abstract Reentry is a challenge many offenders face once they are incarcerated and released into society. The term â€Å"reentry’† is a synonym for return and is defined as the act of going back to a prior place, location, situation or setting. Prison re-entry refers to the transition of offenders from prisons or jails back into the community. The concept of life in society is an important part of any reintegration of institutionalized people, including people who have been incarcerated for committing a crime. The institutionalization of a population leads to isolation, segregation and detachment of the elements of a company defining the basis of citizenship. Although individuals often returning to the community focus more on the choice of where they dwell, their long-term success in society is more likely to be dependent on the social roles they have chosen to play, to the extent that they will engage in the community and they have been prepared for this purpose during their incarceration or institutionalization. Reentry can help reduce recidivism as well as assist those who have been previously incarcerated to begin leading law abiding lives once released into society. However, overtime the importance of prisoner reentry has been drastically lowered with less emphasis on helping those to prepare for their release and with post release community integration. As a result, the shortage of reentry programs and limited responsibility of probation or parole to assist in re-entry; the rate at which people return to prison or jail is high. Keywords: reentry, recidivism, institutionalization Re-Entry and Its Effects: Institutional and Post Release Those who are incarcerated do not only serve time inside their prison cell, they also serve time once they are released. There are many barriers that one faces once they are released such as they are denied the right to vote,  access to public assistance, ineligible for food stamps and/or subsidized housing, and some cannot even apply for financial aid. The main problem revolving around those returning home from incarceration is the limited access to rehabilitation and assistance. The Second Chance Act of 2007 was passed on April 9, 2008 and became Public Law 110-199. The Second Chance Act provides a second chance to those reentering society from incarceration. It helps people released from prison turn their lives around and encourages employers to give returning citizens a second chance to contribute to the greater good of the local economy. In this paper I would like to I would like to point out the positive effects of successful reentry and its ability to lower recidivism. I will also discuss the Second Chance Act in further detail, which was created to provide funding for reentry programs. I will further discuss the roles of Probation and Parole and propose how their roles can be shifted to enhance successful community reintegration. I will finally explain how American values and ideologies play a significant role in resolving the issues behind reentry and the obstacles that prisoners are facing through their difficult journey to successful reintegration. Literature Review What is reentry and why is it important to society? Reentry is the process by which one is incarcerated, finishes his or her sentence and is released into society. They are either released because their sentence has been fulfilled, or on parole or probation. If reentry is unsuccessful, the prisoner will usually return to prison, this action is defined as recidivism. Recidivism can be determined by the number of prisoners being released from incarceration into society and then returning to prison. Recidivism is usually identified through arrest, reconviction, or incarceration of those who have reentered society. When released from prison, inmates who enter society are a very unstable group. Hence the reason for the problem of the reentry process as well as its programs. According to Taxman, Young and Byrne the reentry programs should include three or more phases designed to transition the inmate into the community. The first phase would begin in the institution with service delivery congruent with the inmate’s needs. The second phase would begin as the inmate is released from the institution. The inmate’s risks and needs may change significantly as he or she enters the community context. Ideally, the individual would continue in treatment services and case plans would be updated as needed. The final phase is an aftercare or relapse prevention phase where clients would receive ongoing support and services to address their needs (Taxman et al. 2003) The problem with reentry begins with the Corrections part of our Criminal Justice System. While inmates are incarcerated they receive treatment for any health issues as well as various programs to help them upon release. However, the problem with the programs is that they are not being reassessed to determine whether or not they had an impact on the offenders’ risk of future criminal behavior. This process should begin once the offender returns into the community and also while they are under supervision. The results of the reassessment should then guide any changes within the offenders’ treatment plan as well as determine the effectiveness of the programs for future inmates or offenders’. The Second Chance Act of 2007 was created to reauthorize the grant program for reentry of offenders into the community in the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968. It was created to improve reentry planning and implementation and for other purposes as well. The act was introduced on March 20, 2007 by House Congressional representative, Danny Davis of Illinois. The act further had ninety-two (92) co-sponsors and was simultaneously introduced in the Senate by Joseph Biden of Delaware. After a little over a year in the House and the Senate, the Second Chance Act of 2007 was finally signed into law on April 9, 2008 by President Bush as Public Law No. 110-199. There are several purposes for the creation of this act. The act was created to break the cycle of criminal recidivism, increase public safety and to better address the growing population of criminal offenders returning to society. It was also created to rebuild the ties between offenders and their families which will in turn promote stable families. The Second Chance Act will further expand the availability of substance abuse facilities, alternatives to incarceration and comprehensive reentry services. The Second Chance Act of 2007 will further protect the public and promote law-abiding conduct by providing the necessary services to offenders while  they are incarcerated and after they reenter the community. It will finally provide offenders in prison, jails, or juvenile facilities with educational, vocational, literacy and job placement services to facilitate a more effective and productive reentry. The Second Chance Act of 2007 highlights all the main areas where reentry is currently lacking. It will create a healthy environment, allowing the prisoner to have a chance at successful reentry. It will also reauthorize adult and juvenile offender state and local reentry projects as well as improve residential substance abuse treatment for state offenders. The Second Chance Act of 2007 will offer several new reentry initiatives. It will create state, local and tribal reentry courts. Further, it will create drug treatment alternatives to prison, and offer grants for family-based substance abuse treatment. It will further provide grants to evaluate and improve education at prisons, jails, and juvenile facilities and technology career training. This will break down the long standing barriers to successful reentry. The act will further provide the much needed steps to assure public safety and recovery. Some were skeptical to pass the Second Chance Act because they stated that not enough research has been done on what works with reentry. In response, Representative Jones of Ohio stated, â€Å"We can’t study anymore. We have studied. There are all kinds of studies that have shown that community reentry works. There are all kinds of programs that say diversion works. And there are a lot of young people out here who don’t have a mother or father that is a judge or prosecutor or congresswoman or a state representative to call and say I am a good person. They need us to say in the world that young people, older people, whatever their age, who have been involved in the criminal justice system, paid their dues. They need a chance and we ought to give them the second chance† (Congressional Record, 2007). Ones views of criminal justice come from their values and ideologies. Although America can be seen as a very lenient country as far as their values, people do have very strong feelings towards crime, criminals and prisoner reentry. American values include work ethic, personal responsibility, family, individual equality and the goodness of humanity.  Americans see themselves as individuals who are different from all other individuals. They consider themselves as separate individuals who are responsible for their own actions and situations in life (Key American Values). Americans further believe that everyone is of equal value. Americans assume that human nature is basically good and that those who have motivation can achieve any goal set. Finally, Americans have a strong value with regards to work. They admire those who work hard and achieve. A hard worker is one who â€Å"gets right to work† on a task without delay, works efficiently, and completes the task in a way that meets reasonably high standards of quality (Key American Values). Although there are many perspectives that involve criminal justice, the main values of the American society revolve around the issues of reentry. People believe that individuals must be held responsible for their actions. Many individuals believe that there is no way anyone could repay their debt to society after committing a crime. They further feel that those who have been incarcerated have an option to live good lives and achieve their goals but instead choose the easy way out. It is unfortunate that many Americans do not see the realities of society and the realities of the environments that many of the offenders returning home from prison came from and unfortunately will probably be returning to. There are two main ideologies in America; conservatives and liberals. Conservatives believe in personal responsibility, limited government, free markets, individual liberty, traditional American values and a strong national defense. Liberals believe in governmental action to achieve equal opportunity and equality for all, and that it is the duty of the State to alleviate social ills and to protect civil liberties and individual and human rights (Conservatives vs. Liberal Beliefs, 2013). Although Conservatives and Liberals differ immensely, there are those people who are on the borderline of both ideologies. Many Americans hold a prejudice against criminals based on their label. However, regardless of a persons’ values or ideologies, America’s view on criminal justice has shifted over the years. The shift has almost created the mind set of many Americans. The belief that punishment is necessary and that the only way that punishment  can be achieved is through incarceration. Analysis The roles of Probation and Parole are to supervise the offenders once released into society. Probation and parole was designed as an alternative to prison overcrowding. It was merely based on the idea that people can change and will stop their frequent, dysfunctional behavior if given the correct opportunity. This ability to change in conjunction with community safety, allow appropriate offenders to be monitored while showing that they can be productive members of society. Probation and parole officers’ roles in regards to reentry are to assist, supervise and ensure that this does occur with each offender. In most cases they help offenders find housing, jobs, as well as provide structure and support for rehabilitation. While doing so, they are to protect communities by monitoring each offender through meetings, random home and work visits, and sometimes using a global positioning system also knows as a GPS device which tracks an offenders every move. All of the information they obtain regarding each offender, especially any violation of probation, is reported to the courts to then decide whether or not to revoke probation and send the offender to prison. Recommendations Based on my research of the proposed topic of prison reentry, I personally believe there are several ways we could improve the process as well as our programs. First I think we should evaluate and reassess what is working and what is not working. Prisoners who are receiving treatment should continue their treatment even after they are released into society. The programs that are administered to inmates while incarcerated should be reevaluated so we can determine if they really are effective. Based on my research, it seems as if we offer programs to the inmates while incarcerated but once released into society they pretty much on their own. We leave it up to them to make the transition from jail or prison to society. We should be with them every step of the way and offer more assistance for them to rebuild their lives. This is part of the reason why the revolving door exist with some inmates. The help and encouragement should begin while incarcerated. Then once released into society through probation or parole, it’s up to those officers to assist the offender in rebuilding their life. They should  spend time actually getting to know the offender, communicating with the regularly, help them find a job and a place to call their own. Conclusion The federal government recognized and acknowledged the problem of reentry due to efforts such as the Second Chance Act of 2007. This act aided in the implementation of several programs and foundations that would assist in reentry. Hopefully, over a period of time data and research will be collected to evaluate the effectiveness of each program. This data should start once the offender enters the program while incarcerated until they are released into society and under supervision. This data will then allow the country as a whole to develop a successful model to be used in aiding the difficult transition from incarceration to society. Many of those who are currently incarcerated are young, non-violent, first time offenders who make stupid mistakes and deserve a second chance. As stated within this paper, there are various reasons why prison reentry is important to our criminal justice system as well as society. It’s up to us to acknowledge this ongoing problem and do what it takes reduce recidivism and do what it takes to prepare inmates before they are released into society. As stated by Representative Norton from the District of Columbia, â€Å"inmates are now coming home, let’s not make it any worse than it was in condemning them disproportionately under the cocaine guidelines. We owe it to their communities to help them return and become good citizens† (Congressional Record, 2007). References Visher, Christy A. and Jeremy Travis. (2003) Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding Individual Pathways. Annual Review Sociology. Vol. 29, 2003, pp. 89-113. Harrison, Byron and Robert Carl Schehr. (2004). Offenders and Post Release Jobs: Variables Influencing Success and Failure. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, Vol. 39, No. 3, 2004, pp. 35-68 Key American Values. 1994-1995. Retrieved from online on April 2014 http://www.umsl.edu/~intelstu/Admitted%20Students/Visitor%20Handbook/keyvalues.html Congressional Record – House, (2007) Retrieved from online on April 2014 http://beta.congress.gov/congressional-record/2007/11/13/house-section/articl